Gabriel+Willman's+Project


 * Globalization: The Destruction of Species? **

Gabriel Willman AMH3930H - The Farmer, the King, and the Natural World Spring 2012 Semester University of Central Florida Drs. Lester and Walker

**Foreword **
toc This project originated as a study of the irrigation and agriculture of the American Great Plains; but, after weeks of research, I came to the realization that what truly intrigued me was the multifaceted impact introduction of alien species. In researching the pre-European period, I found myself focused on the introduction, domestication, and development of various crops, rather than the expansion of irrigation techniques. While investigating the European contact, I realized that I was drawn to the overreaching impact of the European ecological contamination, rather than the replacement of existing agricultural practices. And as examined the sustainability of the modern system, I became conscious of the fact that I was truly interested in the concept that externally introduced species had entirely altered the ecology of the entire region. Considering my apparent fascination with the subject, I chose to make some last minute changes to the foundational direction of my project. In seeking to refocus my investigation, I began to examine the origins of species introduction, ways to regulate contamination, and the potential methods of minimizing ecological impacts.

**Abstract **
Drawing on personal observation as well as the available body of research, this study will examine the ecological flux created by ecological contamination of an increasingly connected world. Specifically, the impact of contaminate species on the local environment of Florida is examined. This is followed by an investigation of the regional impact of the intentional propagation of designed species via continued human intervention. And finally, a basic study of the alterations of aquatic ecosystems around the world. Each examination will include an assessment of the origins of the issues and potential for positive human intervention, either to prevent further damage or to reduce the probability of future contamination. In general, while it appears that state regulation can diminish the probability of future infection, the majority of contamination occurs on the local level and the most effective recovery measures involve locally organized programs, integrating the use of state resources and local initiative.

**Introduction **
The term “invasive species” or “alien species” can conjure up images of the creatures of science fiction; beings whose very nature is to be disruptive to the natural order. However, while this is somewhat simplistic and overly dramatic visualization, the basic conceptualization is actually valid. Invasive species are essentially defined as alien (non-native) species which disrupts an existing environmental dynamic (The National Invasive Species Council n.d.). The process of globalization has been an on-going process throughout all of history, but the past few centuries have been witness to an exponential acceleration of this phenomenon (Rowntree, et al. 2011, 48-70). As human society has become increasingly connected, more has been exchanged than culture or technology. In traveling to every disparate point on the globe, humans have (if at times unwittingly) cross contaminated almost every ecosystem on the planet. While these aliens are not always as destructive as those of fictional tales their impact can be catastrophic, especially to the continued survival of their native equivalents. In fact, modern times have seen the effective destruction of multiple ecological dynamics on the local, regional, and global levels.

In addition to simply examining the existing issues and their interaction on various scales, it is especially important to develop a strong understanding of the impact of human variables. When studying the implications of the acceleration globalization in environmental disturbance, it is essential to also consider the preventative and recovery measures which can positively influence future developments. Overall, while it appears that state regulation can diminish the probability of future infection, the majority of modern contamination appears to occur on the local level. This is not to imply that corporations and states have not played a role in the growth of ecological disturbances, rather that individuals are often integrally important in the actual introduction of alien species. Further that many effective recovery measures involve locally organized programs, utilizing state resources and local enterprise.

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**Florida: Alien Neighbors **
One of the best examples for the potential damage which the careless contamination of alien species can cause is current condition of the ecology of the State of Florida. Many who live in Florida have never considered the on-going ecological fluctuations and disruptions in the local environment. A large number of the species which are commonly accepted as indigenous to the Floridian landscape are actually the offspring of violent invaders. Further, local environments are often suffering from the effects of multiple waves of historical invasions, which continue to resolve and expand. For example, early European contact saw the intentional introduction of Eurasian Wild Boar by the Spanish drastically alter the environment existing environment, threatening the survival of innumerable flora and fauna (The National Invasive Species Council 2012). Later, the Fire Ants, which have now become an infamous hazard to the unwary tourist, had their origins as stowaways on merchant ships inbound from Brazil. These ecological interlopers were followed by waves of invading Cuban Brown Anoles and Cuban Tree Frogs Cane Toads. And most recently we have seen the spread of Burmese Pythons throughout the Florida Everglades and Keys (Pimm 2009). These are only a few of the foreign variables which have been introduced to the local ecosystems. In addition to the obvious annoyance posed to the human population by the fire ants, each of these invaders has also directly threatened the survival of specific species and their constituent ecosystems. From native green anoles to American Alligators, many of the contributors of the local ecological dynamic of Florida are being challenged to various degrees. (The National Invasive Species Council 2012)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">While some of these species mentioned above were introduced intentionally or through accidental contamination, modern introductions have tended to be the result of individual release. In acknowledgement of this, much of the preventative advice provided by state agencies is directed toward affirming the responsibility of the individual. The necessity of public awareness has become one of the primary points of focus for conservationists. In addition, the inherently local aspect of any prevention, preservation, or recovery initiative has spurred state agencies to alter their stance on the issue. Rather than attempting to centralize and simplify efforts to combat invasive species, the focus is placed on facilitating local efforts, utilizing county and city offices instead of state or federal agencies. These policies allow local organizations to pursue innovative prevention or removal operations without the restrictions of centralized planning or oversimplification. (National Invasive Species Council n.d.)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Furthermore, federal agencies such as the National Invasive Species Council work under the auspices of the U.S. Department of State to achieve international cooperation. While individual recovery efforts are tailored to specific locales and invasive species, the general regulation of potentially invasive species is left mainly to the state. By working together to reciprocally limit the potential cross contamination of ecologies, governments are able to reduce future environmental (and financial) costs. Essentially, while local organizations are entrusted with on-site concerns of identification, prevention, and recovery, the state stringently monitors the importation, cultivation, and distribution of exotic species, thereby reducing the pressure on local initiatives. While not a perfect system, these policies seem to have significantly slowed the introduction of invasive species in Florida. (National Invasive Species Council n.d.)

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**<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Agriculture: An Alien Landscape **
<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">One aspect of the invasive species dynamic which is often ignored by most assessments of the issue is that of active human propagation. Most modern invasive species studies examine the accidental introduction of species and the effort to minimize their impact. However, the most widespread dissemination of ecologically disruptive flora is the on-going and intentional effort of the modern agricultural community. It could be argued that farming inherently entails the disruption of existing systems in favor of domesticated species; yet, even so, the past few decades have seen a dramatic homogenization of these species. Many pre-existing and relatively unobtrusive agricultural dynamics have been overturned in favor of intensive farming techniques which utilize alien (often designed) species which adversely affect local systems. Essentially, in many parts of the world, the introduction of modern agriculture has completely reworked the local ecology into an entirely alien landscape. (Qaim, et al. 2006, 48-58)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">These crops are marketed at a local level by corporations and touted as productively superior to the heritage species which are usually well integrated to the existing ecosystem. Despite doubt as to the veracity of these claims in many environments and evidence of possible detriment to micro-organisms in the soil, few governments have regulated the importation of exotic agricultural crops (Turrini, et al. 2005, 69-75). Further, the viability of exotic crops is often contingent upon the additional alteration of the ecology (ie. increased water usage, intensive pesticide regimens, or extensive soil alteration). These factors have led to the possibly permanent degradation of many agricultural centers around the world.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The response to the introduction of these alien crops has often originated with local leaders and small organizations. India specifically has seen significant ecological recovery in some areas which have reverted to heritage cotton stock over the introduced seed. But global market forces have often created an environment which forces individuals to attempt potentially high yield species, a choice which is many times detrimental in the long-term. The globalized integration of markets tends to place farmers from relatively poor countries at a severe disadvantage to their opposites in more affluent states. As this process continues, it becomes increasingly difficult for farmers to do other than transform their fields into an alien landscape. (Eshelby 2011)

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**<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aquatica: Aliens in the Water **
<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A topic which often receives a large portion of its deserved environmental notice is that of aquatic invaders. Recent years have seen more and more aquatic species added to the lists of common invasive species. While some aquatic species, such as the Nutria, have long been members of the invasive species club, a variety of new invaders have begun taking over U.S. waterways. These invaders are as diverse as they are numerous, ranging from mussels, to algae, to various fish. The danger posed by these species is slightly different than those of the examples examined thus far. While creatures such as the Nutria and Fire Ant are held in check by the dual restrictions of local effort and environmental limitation, such adaptive, hardy, and prolific species as the Asian Carp, Northern Snakehead Fish, and Quagga Mussel can be much more difficult to control. Able to spread throughout any waterway, be it natural or man-made, and hardy enough to survive relatively cold temperatures, these aquatic invaders have become a national and international concern. (Dextrase and Mandrak 2006, 13-24) (The National Invasive Species Council 2012)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">One of the greatest issues with the introduction of these species is that the contamination is often intentional. Reasons may range from sport fishing to lake stocking, but the result is the same, the release of an uncontrolled variable in an unbounded environment which is inherently unequipped to cope. This aspect of local introduction is one of the reasons that The National Invasive Species Council has so emphasized the need to expanded public awareness of the individual potential for damage. While individuals have little ability to control or reduce existing contaminations, they are usually integral to the prevention of initial infection. (Dextrase and Mandrak 2006) (The National Invasive Species Council n.d.)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Also of critical concern is the lack of viable methods to remove these invasive aquatic species. Direct state action, such as the creation of electrified barriers has slowed the advance of Asian Carp, but no functional plans have been formulated to orchestrate their removal. The dramatic spread of the Quagga Mussel throughout the Mississippi River has shown how rapidly these invaders can move and just how powerless humans can be to stop them. Despite huge resource distribution, local organization, and state policy, once these volatile variables are released, there is very little which can be done to recover them. (The National Invasive Species Council n.d.)

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Conclusion **
<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In examining the various types of invasive species contamination from the perspectives of their local, regional, and global impact, it seems that multiple forces can initiate contamination, ranging from market forces, to accidental local vectors, and even intentional state implementation. Modern times have especially seen a rise of accidental contamination in the United States. This has given rise to a correlative focus on public awareness and the regulation of imported species. However, these measures often completely ignore the socially acceptable ecological disruption caused by the intentional importation of foreign crops. Further, state measures are often unequal to the task of countering the spread of highly invasive species, such as the Asian Carp.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">But the questions remain, are invasive contaminations necessarily bad? Does cross-contamination necessarily mean the destruction of existing species? It would seem that a short-term answer to these questions is yes, invasive species are inherently disruptive and their presence often causes ecological crises which can destroy the viability of other species. However, this is not always the case and nature rarely functions in a vacuum. Given that natural ecosystems are never static and always incorporate a measure of fluctuation, it seems that the introduction of alien species may actually have the potential to strengthen ecologies, in the long run. While this study does not promote the intentional contamination of ecologies, it would seem naive to ignore the inherent resilience of these systems.

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Reference List **
<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Dextrase, Alan J., and Nicholas E. Mandrak. "Impacts of Alien Invasive Species on Freshwater Fauna at Risk in Canada." //BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS// 8, no. 1 (2006): 13-24.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Eshelby, Kate. "Cotton: The Huge Moral Issue." //Annual Editions: Developing World//, 2011: 41-42.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Pimm, Stuart. //Pythons in Florida Everglades: Is the Snake Invasion Only Beginning?// September 6, 2009. http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2009/09/06/pythons_in_florida_everglades/ (accessed April 17, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Qaim, Matin, Arjunan Subramanian, Gopal Naik, and David Zilberman. "Adoption of Bt Cotton and Impact Variability: Insights from India." //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Review of Agricultural Economics //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;"> 28, no. 1 (2006): 48-58.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Rowntree, Lester, William Wyckoff, Marie Price, and Martin Lewis. //Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development.// Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">The National Invasive Species Council. //Control and Management.// http://www.invasivespecies.gov/global/CMR/CMR_index.html (accessed April 10, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //Definition of Invasive Species?// http://www.invasivespecies.org/resources/defineis.html (accessed April 20, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //Prevention.// http://www.invasivespecies.gov/global/prevention/prevention_index.html (accessed April 10, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Species Profile: Asian Carp. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;"> January 18, 2012. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/asiancarp.shtml (accessed April 5, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //Species Profile: Cane Toad.// April 4, 2012. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/animals/canetoad.shtml (accessed April 15, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Species Profile: Nutria. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;"> December 17, 2011. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/nutria.shtml (accessed April 5, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Species Profile: Quagga Mussel. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;"> April 4, 2012. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/quagga.shtml (accessed April 5, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">—. //Species Profile: Wild Boar.// February 6, 2012. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/animals/wildboar.shtml (accessed April 7, 2012).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS',sans-serif;">Turrini, Alessandra, Cristiana Sbrana, Marco Paolo Nuti, Bianca Maria Pietrangeli, and Manuela Giovannetti. "Development of a model system to assess the impact of genetically modified corn and aubergine plants on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi." //PLANT AND SOIL// 266, no. 1-2 (2005): 69-75.